3, pp. 274-285, doi: 10.6007/IJARBSS/v5-i8/1784. Shows the distribution of wage by location, T-statistics of gender according to the sector of employment, Distribution of females according to the sector of employment, Distribution of males according to the sector employment, Characteristics of wage and nonwage employment, OLS regression estimates for log monthly earnings and average earnings (in Naira) by group, Within-group and between-group monthly earnings inequality, Theil's entropy. (Klasen and Santos-Silva, 2018). Journal of Human Ecology, 56(1-2), 99-106. determinants of poverty that are positively or negatively linked with the poverty status. Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. In terms of region, the inequality measured by average earning favors the southern region over the northern region. Specifically, within-group inequality is found to be more in the categories of regions (0.80409) and location (0.79634) than in the category of gender (0.77988). Going by the above knowledge, a nation as populous as Nigeria cannot take with levity the problem of gender inequality if she wants her economy to grow. The result shows that gender inequality is more pronounced across the region, location and in some sectors of employment than the others. endobj Furthermore, women engaged more in the farm value chain than they did previously, earning more and closing femalemale earnings inequality in Nigeria's rural agriculture sector. 0000009454 00000 n Fantom, N. and Serajuddin, U. This study has further revealed the need to bridge the gap gender inequality has caused in Nigeria, especially related to income, education and geographical location, with a focus on both opportunities and outcomes. 2, pp. (2012), "Socioeconomic determinants of poverty among urban households in SouthWest Nigeria", International Journal of Social Economics, Vol. The World Bank Group works in every major area of development. The multidimensional child poverty concept was applied to children under-5 years of age. <> hb```"N>A1&X66{rS()GZ~,Z"k{"/l}"O~``h````h`` 2]B;@Ip(($I``*fb`cX0bfWWo3c|V6!a`ZmXif 4x= Following in distance is buying and selling, which is 14.76%; public administration (5.42%) and personal services (4.82%) are also common among males. endobj The report emphasizes that these reforms are urgent as Nigerias population continues to grow; now is the time to ensure that the country seizes the promise of its young people for economic prosperity. xq !/+t Within-group inequality is dominant in Nigeria. Historically in Nigeria, certain tribes treated men preferentially for economic empowerment and inheritances (Olanrewaju et al., 2015; Pathak, 2017). About 50.83% of those with paid employment have tertiary education, followed by individuals with secondary education (32.37%). This shows that inequality in earning favoring the female can result in divorce. There has been a lot of advocacy by both the government and civil societies making a case for training the girl child and providing equal opportunities over the years (Abendroth et al., 2017; Connell et al., 2020). Abuja, March 22, 2022 Sluggish growth, low human capital, labor market weaknesses, and exposure to shocks are holding Nigerias poverty reduction back says a new World Bank report A Better Future for All Nigerians: Nigeria Poverty Assessment 2022. 13012, pp. 127, 104755. The report represents the culmination of the World Banks engagement on poverty- and inequality-relevant data and analytics in Nigeria in the past two years. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyalebechi, L. (2016), The issue of gender inequality in Nigeria, Journal of Policy and Development Studies, Vol. This section provides the estimated result from the models, such as OLS regression, Theil's entropy and the kernel density. Marital status has the highest level of inequality (0.125), followed by education (0.088) and gender (0.043). Hegewisch, A. and Williams-Baron, E. (2018), The gender wage gap: 2017; earnings differences by gender, race, and ethnicity, Institute for Womens Policy Research. (2019), Children and gender inequality: evidence from Denmark, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, Vol. Along gender measured by male and female, the within inequality (0.7799) is of high value and close to the threshold of absolute inequality. It is the largest economy in Africa, with its growing manufacturing sector becoming the biggest in Africa in 2013 (Fantom and Serajuddin, 2016; Lawal et al., 2018). (2018), Historical origins of persistent inequality in Nigeria, Oxford Development Studies, Vol. Of course, arguments about pay disparities, differences in education by gender, the relationship between family responsibilities and wages and crowding of women into particular occupations have been staples of studying the economic status of women ever since. Evidences suggest that the program has helped young females access infrastructure and helped close the inequality gap on their male counterparts. With this, the study was able to capture changes in relative mean incomes because of inequality. The report suggests at least three types of deep, long-term reforms to foster and sustain pro-poor growth and raise Nigerians out of poverty. Checchi, D. and van De Werfhorst, H.G. endobj 190-222. We described the distribution of the sample between male and female who are in paid employment along gender, across age group (1565), location (rural or urban), region (Northeast, North West, North Central, South East, South West and South-South), and some selected sectors of employment (agriculture, industry and services) using the OLS technique (Kilmer and Rodrguez, 2017). nj=NjN, the proportion of those in the sample who are in the jth subgroup. 2, pp. The economic value of females was projected to be about 30% of the gross national product (UNDP, 2015). The study shows that democratic occupation reduces the gender pay gap between 45% and 63%. Section three provides the methodological outlook of the study, while section four presents the result and discusses the findings. Despite recent progress in poverty reduction globally, millions of people are either near or living in severe multidimensional poverty in Nigeria. To understand the data, we explored the data using descriptive statistics (Young and Wessnitzer, 2016). We face big challenges to help the worlds poorest people and ensure that everyone sees benefits from economic growth. (2015), Labor market, demographic patterns and income inequality in Nigeria, Journal of Sociology and Social Anthropology, Vol. As presented in the table, 48.48% of males have no wage, and 52.52 of females have no wage, with females having a higher percentage. This points to the existence of an imbalance in the wage employment in Nigeria. Abuja, March 22, 2022 - Sluggish growth, low human capital, labor market weaknesses, and exposure to shocks are holding Nigeria's poverty reduction back says a new World Bank report "A Better Future for All Nigerians: Nigeria Poverty Assessment 2022". 81 0 obj Kaplan, A. and Herbst, A. 165-181. https://doi.org/10.1108/JBSED-01-2021-0007, Copyright 2021, Oluyemi Theophilus Adeosun and Kayode Ebenezer Owolabi, Published in Journal of Business and Socio-economic Development. (2015), Women in Igbo Life and Thought, Routledge, New York. It enabled the measurement of the effect of changes in population from one group to another and capturing the changes in the within-group inequalities over time (Cowell, 2006). The households included in the GHS- panel are a subsample of the overall GHS sample households. " Socioeconomic determinants of poverty among urban households in SouthWest Nigeria ," International Journal of Social Economics, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, vol. Two poverty levels were used in analyzing the household survey data. 4, pp. 16 No. 281-315. 125-145. Based on regional comparison, residents in the southern part of the country earned more (N62,638.92) than their northern counterparts (N55,039.52). The Multigroup Entropy Index (2004), (Also Known as Theil's H or the Information Theory Index), December, pp. Klasen, S. and Santos-Silva, M. (2018), Gender inequality as a barrier to economic growth: a review of the theoretical literature, Discussion Papers, No. 0000000016 00000 n 84 No. EneObong, H.N., Onuoha, N.O. Using a multidimensional approach, the authors hope to provide a broad view of poverty and a thorough account of the variables that contribute to it. In contrast, the negative effect of GDP per capita on infant mortality grows stronger. Funding details: The authors received no direct funding for this research work. The standard deviation to mean ratio of females is 3.87 and 4.38 for male, which are greater than 0.5, thus suggesting a high coefficient of variation (i.e. Visit emeraldpublishing.com/platformupdate to discover the latest news and updates, Answers to the most commonly asked questions here, 2021, Oluyemi Theophilus Adeosun and Kayode Ebenezer Owolabi, Women at work: women's access to power and the gender earnings gap, Bridging the financial inclusion gender gap in smallholder agriculture in Nigeria: an untapped potential for sustainable development, Gender disparity in enrolment into basic formal education in Nigeria: implications for national development, The issue of gender inequality in Nigeria, Journal of Policy and Development Studies, Historical origins of persistent inequality in Nigeria, The women's place in family inheritance in Igboland, Skills and Inequality: Partisan Politics and the Political Economy of Education Reforms in Western Welfare States, Nigeria government debt percentage of GDP 19812019, Policies, skills and earnings: how educational inequality affects earnings inequality, World health inequality: convergence, divergence, and development, Equal Measures 2030: a new approach for advocacy and influencing beyond Beijing+ 25, Theil, inequality indices and decomposition, Gender roles, family relationships, and household food and nutrition security in Ohafia matrilineal society in Nigeria, An empirical analysis of the macroeconomic impact of public debt in Nigeria, Relationship of gender differences in preferences to economic development and gender equality, The World Banks classification of countries by income, Policy Research working paper; no. Furthermore, evidence suggests that those who have higher education earn more than others and that the higher the level of education, the higher the earning. 1-10. 9 No. Walker, A. (Manufacturing sector report 2015; Isiksal and Chimezie 2016; Ovadia and Wolf, 2018). 32, pp. 0000003136 00000 n The results also indicate that the determinants of extreme energy . 4, pp. About this book. Determinants of Poverty Level in Nigeria Olabode Olofin Adetoye Adejumo Abimbola Sanusi Abstract This study uses annual data between 1990 and 2010, and employs Dynamic Ordinary Least Square (DOLS) method to examine what determines poverty level in Nigeria. 0000001359 00000 n Fidelis et al. The GHS panel is a nationally representative survey of 5,000 households, representing the geopolitical zones (at both the urban and rural levels). 53, pp. The study further highlights the implication of such disparity in a nation, citing women's high dependency on men, crises and its effect on infant mortality. Although several studies have examined causes or determinants of poverty from both empirical and theoretical perspectives, there is a need to reexamine the existence of poverty in Nigeria despite the abundance of natural endowment resource in the country. All the regressors, on aggregate with the exception of household size, have significant effect on energy poverty of households. Onafowora, O. and Owoye, O. The scope of this research work will cover the period of 20152016 using the Living Standard Measurement Survey (LSMS) Wave 3 for Nigeria. Akinbi, J.O. ESI Postdoctoral Program 2022/23(35 scholarships), Research Visit(Spain, Italy, Latvia, Czech Republic, Poland, and China). Handle: RePEc:eme:ijsepp:03068291211199341. The report adds that climate and conflict shocks which disproportionately affect Nigerias poor are multiplying, and their effects have been compounded by COVID-19; yet government support for households is scant. In another vein, a wife earning higher than her husband increases the risk of divorce in Israel. Furthermore, occupation is a strong system that cannot be overridden by an individual characteristic. 26 No. This shows a high gap in income considering the north and south of Nigeria and geographical area contributes more to inequality in earnings in Nigeria. Going by the above knowledge, a nation as populous as Nigeria cannot . Osunde (2015) put the adult male's market participation rate in the country to be 73.7% as of 2000. We further confirm that inequality in educational achievement is a factor that contributes to the gap in earning. xref With 189 member countries, staff from more than 170 countries, and offices in over 130 locations, the World Bank Group is a unique global partnership: five institutions working for sustainable solutions that reduce poverty and build shared prosperity in developing countries. (2016), Impact of industrialization in Nigeria, European Scientific Journal, Vol. Findings from the paper empirically confirm that the presence of inequality in earnings prevails in Nigeria. To further appreciate the data set and the need to evaluate the dimension of gender inequality along regions in the country, the data were broken down to the regions in the country along the gender line. 52 No. endobj The purpose of this paper is to examine poverty situations among urban households in Ekiti State, Nigeria with emphasis on household socioeconomic characteristics and their associated influence on poverty., - A multistage sampling approach was used to select 80 households who were interviewed using a well structured questionnaire. The socioeconomic impact of inequality was examined in Israel by Kaplan and Herbst (2015), emphasizing the contribution of relative income, household income and education inequality to divorce in Israel. As more of the general populace attend school, the lesser the inequality as a result of education. It is observed that within-group inequality has the larger share of the inequality, while the between-group inequality only accounts for minimal contribution to inequality in earnings in Nigeria. Conflict is spreading and intensifying across Nigeria, so it is important to implement programs to support poor and vulnerable Nigerians that are simple and flexible while also limiting the risk of exacerbating fragility and conflict said Tara Vishwanath, World Bank Lead Economist and co-author of the report. Furthermore, the education of a girl child is important in bridging the inequality gap in earnings. IMF (2020), World economic outlook database, available at: Imf.org, (accessed April 17 2020). exit from poverty, whereas, demographic factors and other sources of income are found not to be very significant. (2004), The multigroup entropy index (also known as Theil's H or the information theory index), US Census Bureau, p. 2006, July 31. 325-347. 80 0 obj It makes a case for attention to women empowerment and likely economic outcomes. The likelihood ratio statistic, which is statistically significant at 1%, indicates . You may be able to access this content by logging in via your Emerald profile. The model had a good fit. 1-9. Within-group inequality explains inequality in relation to such group (internally), while the between-group measures inequality in relation to other groups (external). Geographical area has a higher effect on earnings disparity but is more pronounced among females. endstream endobj 43 0 obj <>stream This also confirms the prior expectation that more years of schooling should be income rewarding. 362 No. This shows the wide gap that exists in earnings in both locations. 617-624, doi: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.12.008. Akinbi and Akinbi (2015) examine inequity in healthcare utilization through an analysis of the Nigeria situation for the period of 2010; using the Nigerian living standard survey (NLSS) data, they adopted the horizontal inequity (HI) index to make their findings. Isiksal, A.Z. However, based on Theil index measurement, urban inequality is lower than rural; urban is 0.334 and rural is 0.672 in Nigeria. Connell, A., Holder, A. and Kearney, H. (2020), Equal Measures 2030: a new approach for advocacy and influencing beyond Beijing+ 25, Gender and Development, Vol. "k|kAH0!D7`5$.o1pSRxPzAj6hLc-Q1Obz[R!oc8cnwE$Jmz^~zy/Szy,&x(lBL,6A#dAos `#N ~8T&64Dt.JaeQ2==FQ_7aiw~Q"k"tp-1&sV` Furthermore, Nigeria's outlook in the Human Capital Development Index (0.539) as of 2019 is nothing to be proud of, ranking 158 among nations of the world . 334, pp. View in full-text Get access to 30 million figures This volume is a collection of selected studies on poverty and well-being in East Africa. Educational level is a major factor in income distribution. endobj The study was in line with the neoclassical economic theory. Considering female distribution, North East holds a higher population with 22%, while North East with 17% and North Central 17% are tied. 4 No. 1-5. The estimated results show that about 82.11 % of the population was categorized as living under US$2/day in the postplanting season and 83.32 % in the postharvest season. (2016), Descriptive statistics, graphs, and visualisation, Modern Statistical Methods for HCI, Springer, Cham, pp. However, the recent discovery shows that some of this gap is being closed gradually, such as the gap regarding educational attainment and horizontal occupational segregation is further reduced. By investing in data, Nigeria can build trust, accountability, and transparency, taking substantial strides on its pathway to poverty reduction. % Furthermore, a higher level of education of both couples reduces the risk of divorce. and Ashaolu, O.F. Mandel's (2016) findings indicated that characteristics that increase gender inequality in pay occupation through exclusionary practices really work the opposite direction on within occupation gender inequality. 33 0 obj <> endobj and Onumonu, O.G. The service sector contributed 86.92% to the has-wage category, while 69.82% of the female wage earners are married. It further explains the within- and between-gender inequality in income along with several characteristics. Total earnings inequality was decomposed using Theil's entropy (Table 6). Several factors account for the gap in gender-based earning, such as segregation by occupation and industry, differences in physical structure, education and skill acquisition, contributing to differences in earning (Akinbi and Akinbi, 2015; Para-Mallam, 2017). 39 (3), pages 168-181, February. y=total number of employed individuals in the sample, yj=total number employed in a subgroup (for example, region North, West) with N members, yj=is the mean of employed individuals of this subgroup. On the other hand, the kurtosis value, whose threshold is 3, indicates that all variables are platykurtic (lowly peaked) with the values of 2.098 and 1.734 for males and females, respectively. 2, pp. Downloadable! The World Bank provided technical support to the NBS throughout the entire survey implementation, introducing several methodological improvements that led to the availability of reliable data for the poverty estimates. In their study, there exists a positive relationship between educational attainment and the level of earning. Evidence from the study revealed that socio-demographic variables as well as labor characteristics are strong determinants of poverty in the country, and the findings confirmed to the theoretical propositions on causes of poverty. The domestic roles played by women, including social reproduction, has long been categorized as unproductive. The study examines the impact of the government e-wallet on young females' performance in the rural agriculture sphere in contributing to the enhancement of female productivity in the agriculture sector. Section five provides the conclusion and recommendations. WP/18/062, African Governance and Development Institute (AGDI), Yaound. The paper examines the linkages between gender of household heads, education and household poverty in Nigeria between 1980 and 1996. (2018), Relationship of gender differences in preferences to economic development and gender equality, Science, Vol. In Nigeria, women dominate the unpaid job sector, twice the figure for men. 345-373. 5, pp. Women participation in politics in Nigeria is on the low; women are heavily discriminated against and given little or no opportunity to participate in politics Anyalebechi (2016) identified factors that contribute to the high inequality gap in women participation in politics, factors such as culture and norms favoring the male; education level of women also contribute to the low participation; many women are not educated and relegated to doing household chores. 10-12. %%EOF This shows that a positive effect of GDP per capita on life expectancy attenuates at higher development levels. trailer As of 2019, the Nigeria Bureau Statistics estimated that about 40% of Nigerian population live below the poverty line. Moreover, there are more male (65.67%) wage earners than females (34.33%). The NBS report is based on data from the latest round of the Nigerian Living Standards Survey, conducted in 2018-2019 with support from the World Banks Poverty Global Practice and technical assistance from the LSMS program. IFAD (2013), Policy Brief: Improving Young Rural Women's and Men's Livelihoods, IFAD, Rome. The determinants of poverty were age of the household head which has negative sign and significant at 5%, marital status was positive and significant at 1% while household size was negative and significant at 1%. This clearly shows that a larger percentage of rural dwellers engage in unpaid employment. 235-258. This is in line with our findings which shows that the tertiary level of education provides higher returns than lower levels of education for females. 23-53. (Iceland, 2004). 13, p. e12506. Lawal, A.I., Somoye, R.O., Babajide, A.A. and Nwanji, T.I. 46 No. 23 No. The latest review of the Nigerian economy by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) revealed that closing the gender gap is key to achieving higher growth in the economy, enhancing productivity and greater economic stability (Archibong, 2018; Adegbite and Machethe, 2020). Households have adopted dangerous coping strategies, including reducing education and scaling back food consumption, which could have negative long-run consequences for their human capital. (2018). The source of income is attributable to the level of disparity in earning. <>/MediaBox[0.0 0.0 516.0 728.5200196]/Parent 2 0 R/Resources<>>>/Rotate 0/StructParents 279/Tabs/S/TrimBox[0.0 0.0 516.0 728.5200196]/Type/Page>> Rewhorn, S. (2020), Systems of equity: achieving health and wellbeing for rural communities, in Leal Filho, W., Wall, T., Azul, A.M., Brandli, L. and zuyar, P.G. Gender inequality is a multifaceted concept that incorporates both opportunities and outcomes. endstream endobj 34 0 obj <> endobj 35 0 obj <> endobj 36 0 obj <>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]>> endobj 37 0 obj <> endobj 38 0 obj <> endobj 39 0 obj <> endobj 40 0 obj <> endobj 41 0 obj <> endobj 42 0 obj <>stream Dorius, S.F. 10 No. 87-93. 78 0 obj Over time, with the advent of western education, exposure and enlightenment, there is a need to see how the gap caused by inequality and discrimination against women has been bridged and to what degree. Figini and Santarelli (2006) conducted a panel analysis of the impact of globalization on poverty. Archibong, B. Special thanks to Dr. Omolara Faboya for her support too. endobj Considering the between-group inequality, between-group inequality is relatively low when compared with the within-group inequality. Socio-Demographic Determinants of Poverty in Nigeria and its Gender Differentials. The concept of inequality is broad; it is expressed over the entire population and captures those below a certain poverty line (World Bank, 2011; UNDP, 2013). The table also shows that in terms of employment according to location, the urban centers provide more wage employment (has wage) than the rural area. Busemeyer, M.R. 28 No. Inequality also prevails within the rural and the urban areas (0.7963). 109 0 obj Inequality across region seems to affect the economy greatly as a result shows that some region that is the south is better than the north, therefore, steps to develop the region should be of top priority for the government and the concerned stakeholders such as the multinational companies and private companies in terms of providing wage-paying jobs. Like other parts of the world, women in Nigeria face several discriminations that limit their full capacity. Crosscountry evidence on the effect of gender inequality in education on economic development, The World Bank Economic Review, Vol. Between September of 2018 and October of 2019, the National Bureau of Statistics conducted the latest round of the NLSS, a decade after the previous one. Figure 1 shows that the female wage sprout over that of male to the left. The standard deviation values showed the extent to which the observations are dispersed around their respective means in Table 1. This makes them dependents and subservient to their male counterpart (Ene-Obong et al., 2017). %PDF-1.4 % If you think you should have access to this content, click to contact our support team. (1969), The Neoclassical Theory of Production and Distribution, Cambridge, New York, pp. However, married women are more deprived. 72 No. and Owolabi, K.E. Hypothesizing maximization of utility by income constrained individuals and profit by firms facing production cost and managing production factors. Data analyzed were obtained from four national consumer expenditure surveys conducted in Nigeria in 1980, 1985, 1992 and 1996 by the Federal Office of Statistics. Table 4 describes those who earn a wage in the economy and those who do not; by has wage we mean those who are in a formal working environment, while no wage refers to those who earn from the informal sector. 1 No. The National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) recently released the "2019 Poverty and Inequality in Nigeria" report, which highlights that 40 percent of the total population, or almost 83 million people, live below the country's poverty line of 137,430 naira ($381.75) per year. 2 0 obj They are positively skewed since their skewness statistics are greater than zero. 84 0 obj This site uses cookies to optimize functionality and give you the best possible experience. <> 13 No. [278 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 611] The Result of Tobit regression analysis shows that . 3, pp. Young, J. and Wessnitzer, J. Primary data were used and a sample of 285 farm households through a multistage sampling technique was drawn from the study. t"nUE9;V9ONf8C`Q3))J|CX 53gOUYFG[?640 b+m}#Zf1\(4PAdcnsU!\CwiC*v`^QEx1L" arv-M@~f|A QZ\"z>q43hW-$UTo_scBXZ4_N}H`v}'QY_9M=kCAD4H1. The participation of women in the e-wallet program and the use of modern agricultural tools was the focus of Uduji and Okolo-Obasi (2018). endobj The majority of the low wage earners are females; the male gender with higher incomes than the female tends to the right. More specifically, Theil described entropy index as a measure of the average difference between a unit's group proportions and that of the system as a whole (Theil, 1972). 0000054558 00000 n This shows that equity in education can help curb the menace of divorce. This tends to prove the normality of the data. <> and Wolf, C. (2018), Studying the developmental state: theory and method in research on industrial policy and state-led development in Africa, Third World Quarterly, Vol. It was found that the labor market demand for both genders differs, favoring the male. World Bank (2011), Poverty headcount ratio, available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.NAHC?locations=NG. Evidence supports that income inequality significantly affects health indicators in Nigeria for the period under review. Adjustments were made for price differentials over time and across regions of the country. ID C, 473. Table 2 is a representation of the sectors in which the females in the sample are employed. aSUm@HVs^sh,aN'uQ1| |>Qz+Yv9JGb]jCT\Q v,TJcf}tX<7 Description License Abstract Most of the population of Nigeria is rural and agriculture is the mainstay of the impoverished people's livelihood. This figure declined to 71.7% in 2005 and 70.6% in 2007; consequently, female labor participation during this period stood at 38.7% in 2007, a rise from 38.1% in 2005 and 37% in 2000. <> However, 61.93 % of the population was said to be extremely poor during the postplanting season . 0000001002 00000 n The paper examines the linkages between gender of household heads, education and household poverty in Nigeria between 1980 and 1996. Applying the above the study came up with rural and urban poverty determinants in the South-East as presented in Table 7 thus: . One of the objectives of this paper was to examine inequality between and within the group. Worsdale, R. and Wright, J. This study examined multidimensional poverty transitions in rural Nigeria, employing the Alkire and Foster Measure of Multidimensional Poverty, Markov Model of Poverty Transitions and the Multinomial Logistic Regression Model for analysis. ILO (International Labour Organization) (2011), O.E.C.D definitions, Center for Global Development, pp. As of 2019, the Nigeria Bureau Statistics estimated that about 40% of Nigerian population live below the poverty line. It adds that shaping the specifics of Nigerias poverty-reducing policies will depend strongly on redoubling efforts to gather and analyze data regularly. Osunde (2015), using data from ILO, studied the labor market for male and female workers. and Rodrguez, R.L. endobj This article focuses on some of the key factors that contribute to poverty in Nigeria: (1) unemployment, especially among young graduates; (2) corruption, especially among political office holders; (3) non-diversification of the economy; (4) income inequality; (5) laziness, especially among those who come from wealthy households; and (6) a poor . Average earnings for both urban and rural workers stood at 66,070.14 and 49,887.37 Naira, respectively. and Okolo-Obasi, E.N. In as much as we have been able to identify various shades of gender inequality in the Nigerian economy, more emphasis has been on earning. Hence, inequality as the result of education is due to years of schooling. 1, pp. It has proven that females have higher returns to education than males as revealed by the kernel density graph. Mandel, H. (2016), The role of occupational attributes in gender earnings inequality, 1970 2010, Social Science Research, Vol. 11 No. Data and research help us understand these challenges and set priorities, share knowledge of what works, and measure progress. Checchi and van De Werfhorst studied the relationship between education dispersion and earnings (2018). (2016), An empirical analysis of the macroeconomic impact of public debt in Nigeria, CBN Journal of applied statistics, Vol. and Okojie, C.E. 0000008371 00000 n Economic synergy between rural off-farm income and households' poverty in Ekiti State, Nigeria. (2021), "Gender inequality: determinants and outcomes in Nigeria", Journal of Business and Socio-economic Development, Vol. 12, pp. The study poses that universal education should be a top priority for the government, ensuring free and compulsory education at the secondary school level. Theil, H. (1972), Statistical Decomposition Analysis, North-Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam. endobj 341-356. Ferguson, C.E. Kleven, H. and Landais, C. (2017), Gender inequality and economic development: fertility, education and norms, Economica, Vol. We face big challenges to help the worlds poorest people and ensure that everyone sees benefits from economic growth. This research work is divided into five sections. Marital status also witnesses a high level of within inequality. Data can provide vital guidance on how to design, monitor, and evaluate pro-poor projects and programs, giving a voice to poor and vulnerable Nigerians added Jonathan Lain, World Bank Economist and co-author of the report. 0000002090 00000 n (2016), The World Banks classification of countries by income, Policy Research working paper; no. Considering data from the IMF between 1980 and 2014, the study employs a dynamic ordinary least square (OLS) methodological approach. (2006) studied labor force participation, earnings and inequality in Nigeria using the General Household Survey (GHS) 1999 for Nigeria. 763-780. 949-982. The report shows that gender parity in earning will be achieved at such a growth rate in 2059. (2015), Skills and Inequality: Partisan Politics and the Political Economy of Education Reforms in Western Welfare States, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 5 No. Earnings based on the sector of employment favors those in the agriculture sector. Inspite of several strategies put in place by the United Nations, the government of nations, and various private institutions to reduce gender inequality to the bare minimum, gender inequality continues to be a menace to society. HUMo6W )k6J.E]T+Z w6]'@r3xzJ!5 .sPT05T 44,EQ(h6nJK>ih{w:u?7_3)Q5UWa{`TN6Jh/nLUHn>dy)LUK!57WVw ,sWVn+BV^B%e=}wl,{W(9r-*61\a~ This patriarchal, discriminatory root of neoclassical economics has led to the fallible analysis of women's role in society. The Nigerian Living Standards Survey (NLSS) is the official survey that is the basis for measuring poverty and living standards in the country and is used to estimate a wide range of socio-economic indicators including benchmarking of the Sustainable Development Goals. Gender inequality is a problematic issue as it lowers wellbeing and is regarded as a form of injustice in the very conception of equity (Klasen, 2008; UNDP, 2015; Rewhorn, 2020). 0000001083 00000 n 1 Introduction This paper investigates the determinants of poverty and household welfare in South Africa using the National Income Dynamic Study data. CEIC (2019), Nigeria government debt percentage of GDP 19812019, available at: https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/nigeria/government-debt--of-nominal-gdp (accessed 25 April 2020). Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. Differences in skills acquired also add to the inequality gap as those who possess better skills and education earn more. 3, pp. 2, pp. and Chimezie, O.J. 157-179. Agbasiere, J.T. 0000002882 00000 n Wage equations were estimated using OLS regression to identify the determinants of earning inequality in Nigeria (Table 5). Also, the result showed that gender within inequality was high in the regions, education, location, and marital status while a higher level of education contributes to high wages for women. However, evidence suggests that women in the age bracket of 5055 have a high labor market participation rate. 1, pp. This shows that females are highly deprived when married, and when it comes to education, they are relegated to the back. 1-25, doi: 10.1007/s11229-020-02835-5. 4-12. 1056-1076. In another study by Busemeyer (2015), inequality in skill was examined against the parental background of some set of 15-year-old students using data from OECD. Dependency ratio, household assets and educational status of household head, among others, are socioeconomic factors influencing the poverty. startxref and Dickson, T. (2015), The dilemma of male child preference vis--vis the role of women in the Yoruba Traditional Religion and Society, Journal of Culture, Society and Development, Vol. The study by Fatukasi and Ayeomoni (2015) exposes the consequences of income inequality on health indicators in Nigeria. 1. The study found that 41.0 percent of the households covered by the study were poor and would have to mobilize financial resources up to 45.0 percent of 1 US Dollar (N130) per day (for each household member) to be able to escape poverty. This is in line with the general belief that the agriculture sector employs most of Nigeria's labor. This paper estimated the determinants of rural poverty in Nigeria using the Tobit regression model. Olanrewaju, J.A., Kona, H.U. Ndubuisi, P. (2017), Analysis of the impact of external debt on economic growth in an Emerging Economy: evidence from Nigeria, African Research Review, Vol. 137-160. Generally, there is a high level of inequality in Nigeria. Females have a higher return on education than males. (2015), Effect of income inequality on health indicators in Nigeria (19802014), International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, Vol. In the US, the gender wage report 2017 highlights that women's ratio to mens median annual earnings is 80.5% in 2017. Also, sectoral trends are obtained by analyzing and examining income inequality in Nigeria. With 189 member countries, staff from more than 170 countries, and offices in over 130 locations, the World Bank Group is a unique global partnership: five institutions working for sustainable solutions that reduce poverty and build shared prosperity in developing countries. 63 0 obj 405-423. Efforts should be made to adequately tackle the problem of energy poverty in Nigeria. Determinants of Child Poverty in Rural Nigeria: A Multidimensional Approach Adeoti Adetola & Popoola Olufemi Abstract - The profiles and determinants of child poverty in rural Nigeria were identified using the Demographic and Health Survey, 2008 data. The purpose of this paper is to examine poverty situations among urban households in Ekiti State, Nigeria with emphasis on household socioeconomic characteristics and their associated influence on poverty. [250 0 420 0 0 0 778 214 333 333 0 0 250 333 250 278 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 333 333 0 0 0 0 0 611 611 667 722 611 611 722 722 333 444 667 556 833 667 722 611 722 611 500 556 722 611 833 611 556 556 0 0 0 0 0 0 500 500 444 500 444 278 500 500 278 278 444 278 722 500 500 500 500 389 389 278 500 444 667 444 444 389] In contrast, in the rural (71.95%) area, no wage is higher than that of the urban area (28.05%). Omotayo, A. O. Energy poverty has emerged in recent times as a crucial aspect of poverty, afflicting the developing world in general and Nigeria in particular. Studies have shown that majority of people living in absolute poverty can be found on small farms with half in this group undernourished. (2006), Labour force participation, earnings and inequality in Nigeria, SARPN Acknowledges the African Economic Research Consortium (AERC), pp. The report further notes that jobs do not translate Nigerians hard work into an exit from poverty, as most workers are engaged in small-scale household farm and non-farm enterprises; just 17 percent of Nigerian workers hold the wage jobs best able to lift people out of poverty. Region experiences the highest level of within inequality in the study (0.8041). 62 0 obj However, the north experienced a higher number of people with a lower wage. Table 6 also presents the average group earning of the categories. (2020), My objectivity is better than yours: contextualising debates about gender inequality, Synthese, pp. (2018), Young rural women participation in the e-wallet programme and usage intensity of modern agricultural inputs in Nigeria, AGDI Working Paper, No. The graph shows that rural areas have a higher number of workers receiving lower income than the urban region with a higher number of workers in high-income jobs. This finding is consistent with the earlier studies of Checchi and van De Werfhorst (2018). The overall goodness of fit for the model is 25.10%, with education playing a vital role in the contribution to earnings; agriculture shows a negative relationship. To learn more about cookies, click here. The results of the study show, among other things, that over a fifth of the Nigerian population are afflicted by extreme energy poverty and the phenomenon is more pronounced in the rural areas than in the urban areas as well as in Northern Nigeria than in Southern Nigeria. 39 No. In the past, some literature was of the opinion that gender inequality might actually lead to an increase in economic growth (Mayoux, 1995; Klasen, 2002; Dorius and Firebaugh, 2010; Kleven and Landais, 2017; Worsdale and Wright, 2020). This paper aims to shed light on gender inequality in Nigeria exploring new available data. HTMs8WHD[J/%IvZAG-ia7~Aw 6YvVYa"I>4*YZ6: Global attention is on achieving gender equality and empowering all women and girls. International Journal of Social Economics, Article publication date: 10 February 2012. This physical embodiment induced patriarchy's reproduction over the years (Ferguson, 1969; Aspromourgos, 1986). 33 20 The study measured determinants of both absolute and relative poverty separately and diverse evidence was found in both cases. 3, pp. Multidimensional poverty and its determinants: Empirical evidence from Nigeria Mubaraq Dele Sulaimon1 1French Institute for Research in Africa (IFRA-Nigeria), University of Ibadan, Nigeria Abstract Eradicating poverty in all its forms is one of the sustainable development goals of the global community. and Denton, N.A. However, other authors (Essien et al., 2016; Kleven and Landais, 2017; Falk and Hermle, 2018) have revealed that gender inequality negatively impacts the economy. Osunde, O. Fidelis, O.O., Alaba, O.A., Alaba, O.B., Alayande, B.A. Gender inequality is seen as the disparity between the male and female gender. 61 0 obj Besides, democratic occupation is found to close the gender pay gap more than a less democratic occupation. This means that many women are active in the labor market only after the childbearing period. (2017), The women's place in family inheritance in Igboland, Nnadiebube Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode. Fact Sheet: Pay Equity and Discrimination. The study examined the determinants of rural poverty in Nigeria. Poverty issue calls for serious attention in Nigeria. Data and research help us understand these challenges and set priorities, share knowledge of what works, and measure progress. The entropy index is a measure of evenness that is the extent to which groups are evenly distributed among organizational units (Massey and Denton, 1988). Purpose: The study analyzed the determinants of poverty among farmers in Southern Part of Borno State, Nigeria.Methodology: Using multistage sampling technique, 120 farming households were sampled from 20 villages spread across five Local Government Areas in Southern part of the State. Oluyemi Theophilus Adeosun can be contacted at: https://doi.org/10.1108/JBSED-01-2021-0007, http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode, https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/nigeria/government-debt--of-nominal-gdp, https://www.refworld.org/docid/52fcc3fe4.html, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.NAHC?locations=NG. The presence of barriers mostly drives inequality. The National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) recently released the 2019 Poverty and Inequality in Nigeria report, which highlights that 40 percent of the total population, or almost 83 million people, live below the countrys poverty line of 137,430 naira ($381.75) per year. 79 0 obj Tc3(USud;.6QCe7dW-c&d: Rt+i2VPkc *\v!J'l As opposed to traditional studies of poverty, which focus mainly on material well-being . endobj 168-181. https://doi.org/10.1108/03068291211199341, Copyright 2012, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, Visit emeraldpublishing.com/platformupdate to discover the latest news and updates, Answers to the most commonly asked questions here. It was confirmed that in emerging countries, economic development has more bearing on life expectancy than it has on the infant mortality rate. Clark (2011), in his paper World health inequality: Convergence, divergence, and development, looked at inequality in health using infant mortality rate and life expectancy and checked for the convergence and divergence in the variables and noted that there is a convergence in life expectancy for the years under study; interestingly, there is a rapid divergence in the infant mortality rate. 6412, p. eaas9899. <> In another vain, South and North regions have a close and almost similar wage distribution. 180-209. <> Adjustments were made for price differentials over . Fatukasi, A.A. and Ayeomoni, O.I. Their result shows that inequity in health-care utilization in the country is generally skewed against the poor as the analysis established evidence about the poor with similar medical needs as the rich have access to less health-care service. (2017), Gender justice and law: a gender-specific study of landownership in uttarakhand, Understanding Women's Land Rights: Gender Discrimination in Ownership, Vol. Household socioeconomic factors, among others, have been identified by development practitioners in developing countries as variables which can easily be manipulated through policy levers to improve welfare of the poor. Hence, no economic value is attached since the activities are not captured in the market sphere. Journal of Business and Socio-economic Development. Furthermore, comparing the white and black average monthly earning, the black average monthly income was at a disadvantage, earning just about 60% of the white average monthly income (Hegewisch and Williams-Baron, 2018). (Department of Agricultural Economics and Food Marketing, University of Reading, Reading, UK), (Department of Agricultural Economics and Farm Management, University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria), (Institute of Food Security, Environmental Resources and Agricultural Research, University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria), https://doi.org/10.1108/03068291211199341. The determinants of energy poverty in Nigeria include household size; educational level, gender and age of household head; general poverty; region of residence; and proportion of working members in the household. They also form a large percentage of the respondent, while those who are in the service sector also outweigh the industrial sector in terms of earnings. This paper focuses on inequality in earning in Nigeria; more specifically, the paper explores inequality in earning and gender, region (rural and urban areas), location (north and south), level of educational attainment and marital status. <>stream This shows the superiority of the effect of occupation over the character of an individual. 156-173. (Eds), Good Health and Well-Being, Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, Springer, Cham, doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-95681-7_86. (1988), The dimensions of residential segregation, Social Forces, Vol. Section two provides a literature review on the topic, that is, previous works on or related to the topic. 1941-1968. xTM0+|V`"$FjN "!. (2020), Bridging the financial inclusion gender gap in smallholder agriculture in Nigeria: an untapped potential for sustainable development, World Development, Vol. 0000004242 00000 n Therefore, we propose that further study can examine the root cause of educational inequality along gender, regions and at different level of education in Nigeria so as to make the female gender have equal access to resources available in the country and further strengthen their participation in the political arena also. Iceland, J. Kilmer, J.T. The result is presented in Table 6. For instance, the Igbos do not include women or girls in a will when sharing land or another asset (Agbasiere, 2015; Azuakor, 2017). Many Nigerians especially in the countrys north also lack education and access to basic infrastructure, such as electricity, safe drinking water, and improved sanitation. Figure 2 describes the relationship between the rural and urban regions. We measure the within-group, and between-group inequality; regression analysis, a graphical analysis was also carried out. 39 No. New official household survey data, due to be collected later in 2022, will provide far more detailed insights into the dynamics of and the key constraints on poverty reduction, as well as new pro-poor policies. 122-138. Cowell, F. (2006), Theil, inequality indices and decomposition, Dynamics of Inequality and Poverty, Vol. In 2008, the debt to GDP ratio was 7.2%; however, as of 2019, the figure stood at 16.2% (Onafowora and Owoye, 2019; CEIC, 2019). You may be able to access teaching notes by logging in via your Emerald profile. These factors significantly affected poverty which was in line with apriori expectations. Human capital development must be given adequate attention at all levels of government. The political factor and the rule of law is not favorable to women in politics. This paper estimated the determinants of rural poverty in Nigeria using the Tobit regression model. Essien, S.N., Agboegbulem, N., Mba, M.K. Nigeria's debt to GDP ratio has been on the increase though well below many developing nations like her. Inequality in wage between males and females was evident. It provides information on the population that earns a wage and those who do not earn a wage. Also, considering the skewness statistics whose threshold value for symmetry (or normal distribution) is zero, none of the variables is exactly zero. 1, pp. This shows that the variables are independent of other factors that can affect them externally. 88 No. Declaration of interest statement: The authors declare no conflict of interest. Mayoux, L. (1995), Beyond naivety: women, gender inequality and participatory development, Development and Change, Vol. This figure was recorded for the year 2016, which means that the gender wage gap is of 19.5%. 6, pp. 30 No. Consequentially, per capita income, saving level and educational attainment contribute positively to health indicators in the county. With key sectors such as manufacturing, communications, technology, financial services, entertainment on the increase each year, it is ranked as the 27th largest economy globally considering nominal gross domestic product (GDP) and the 23rd largest when considering purchasing power parity (IMF, 2020). In addition to the Theil index, we consider the OLS to examine the contribution of gender, location, region, educational level, marital status and the sector of employment on the log of monthly earnings. 265-270. 0000007300 00000 n Over the years, gender disparity has been attributed to males' physical structure, making them more productive and deserving of more earnings than females. This decomposed inequality enables the assessment of the major contributions to inequality by different subgroups of the population according to gender, age groups, location, region and the sector of employment. Agriculture also constitutes the main employment sector for the male, with about 54.82% engaged in agriculture. 16-33. The incidence and depth of were higher among female headed households with values 0.26 and 0.43, respectively. The Theil index is the only multigroup index that can be decomposed into a sum of between- and within-group components (Reardon and Firebaugh, 2002) where T=Tw+Tb, which is the sum of the within-group inequality index. Article Google Scholar Omotayo, A. O. Table 3 is the breakdown of the sectors of employment for males. 1, pp. 181-209. Pathak, I. Furthermore, inequality was explained by the sector of employment, location and religion. and Machethe, C.L. Most of the population of Nigeria is rural and agriculture is the mainstay of the impoverished people's livelihood. In Nigeria, girl child education is threatened just like other countries of the world. The same pattern was also found among households with larger number of dependants with values ranging from 0.74 to 1.00 for incidence of poverty and from 0.70 to 0.77 for depth of poverty. These reforms together could help diversify the economy, invigorate structural transformation, create good, productive jobs, and support social protection programs as well as other redistributive government policies. 1-10, ISBN: 9780521076296, ch. WPS 7528, Effect of income inequality on health indicators in Nigeria (19802014), International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, The Neoclassical Theory of Production and Distribution, Labour force participation, earnings and inequality in Nigeria, SARPN Acknowledges the African Economic Research Consortium (AERC), The gender wage gap: 2017; earnings differences by gender, race, and ethnicity, Institute for Womens Policy Research. Fact Sheet: Pay Equity and Discrimination. Klasen, S. (2002), Low schooling for girls, slower growth for all? These sectors currently witness many women; they are largely underproductive and receive poor earnings. After the Second World War, white male economists were greatly influenced by Victorian ideology. Furthermore, Nigeria's outlook in the Human Capital Development Index (0.539) as of 2019 is nothing to be proud of, ranking 158 among nations of the world (UNDP, 2019). ID C, 473, The multigroup entropy index (also known as Theil's H or the information theory index), Stratified patterns of divorce: earnings, education, and gender, Ordinary least squares regression is indicated for studies of allometry, Low schooling for girls, slower growth for all? The general objective of the research work is to ascertain the direction of gender inequality and show the pattern of inequality. Over the years, research works have shown clearly that there is an imbalance in gender allocation in society and sectors of the economy at large (Ndubuisi, 2017). Para-Mallam, F.J. (2017), Gender equality in Nigeria, Gender Equality in a Global Perspective, ROUTLEDGE in association with GSE Research, Vol. Therefore, an inequality gap in income exists between the married and the singles. We leverage on this theory as we seek to examine the role the employment sector plays in earning capacity along gender in Nigeria. He looked to widen the range of occupations open to women with more equal wages. Ovadia, J.S. Girl child education is needed for poverty reduction, ensuring societal tolerance and economic development. The data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Foster-Greer-Thorbecke (FGT) poverty measure, Gini coefficient and probit regression analysis. The average earning of males was almost twice that of females, showing a high disparity in the level of income received by both genders. 0000002618 00000 n The argument for or against gender inequality is a conversation that has remained in the corridor of global debate. 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